Table 1 Skin microbiome and associated diseases

Acne vulgaris

P. acnes

Although the relative abundances of P. acnes were similar, certain strains were highly associated with acne and healthy skin

Sorel Fitz-Gibbon et al. [8]

S. epidermidis

S. epidermidis mediates fermentation to inhibit the growth of P. acnes, which can be implications of probiotics in acne vulgaris

Yanhan Wang et al. [9]

S. epidermidis & P. acnes

S. epidermidis and P. acnes are thought to contribute to the disease, but they are also known to promote health by inhibiting the growth and invasion of pathogens

Alan M. O’Neill et al. [10]

Dysbiosis & Balance

The mere presence of disease-associated strains, as well as the balance between metagenomic elements shapes the overall virulence property of the skin microbiota. Dysbiosis is the process leading to a disturbed skin barrier and disequilibrium of the cutaneous microbiome

Emma Barnard et al. [11], B. Dreno [12], Chun-xi LI et al. [13]

Androgen hormone activity

Increases sebum production inside the pilosebaceous follicle, adjusting the environment for P. acnes which triggers inflammation

M. A. Rocha et al. [14]

Psoriasis

Diversity & Stability

Psoriasis induces physiological changes both at the lesion site and at the systemic lever, with increased diversity and reduced stability compared to the healthy skin microbiome

Alexander V Alekseyenko et al. [15], Daniel J. Lewis et al. [16]

Skin microbiome

Increased abundance of Corynebacterium, Staphylococcus, and Streptococcus, and decreased abundance of Malassezia, Propionibacterium, Cutibacterium genera versus controls

Di Yan et al. [17], Hsin-Wen Chang et al. [18]

Gut microbiome

The gut microbiome composition in psoriasis patients has been altered markedly, and the ratio of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes was perturbed in psoriatic individuals compared to healthy controls

Xinyue Zhang et al. [19], Di Yan et al. [17]

Atopic dermatitis

S. aureus

AD has long been associated with S. aureus skin colonization or infection, and increases in Streptococcus, Propionibacterium, and Corynebacterium species were observed following therapy

Heidi H. Kong et al. [21], Tetsuro Kobayashi et al. [20]

Chronic wound

S. aureus & P. aeruginosa

S. aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are the most common bacteria isolated from chronic wounds

Raffaele Serra et al. [22]

Skin and soft tissue infection

Cutibacterium acne

C. acnes has the potential to directly and indirectly cause inflammation and tissue damage

Laurice Floweis et al. [6]