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Table 1 Gut, oral and nasal microbiota associations with PD

From: Gut, oral and nasal microbiota and Parkinson’s disease

Organs

References

Publication year

Country

Number of patients

Number of controls

Microbiota associations

Gut

Scheperjans et al. [8]

2015

Finland

72

72

Gut microbiota was altered in PD patients and a significant reduction of the relative abundance of Prevotellaceae in PD patients in comparison with controls was observed. The relative abundance of Enterobacteriaceae was identified to be positively associated with the severity of postural instability and gait difficulty

Gut

Keshavarzian et al. [13]

2015

USA

38

34

The fecal microbiota of PD patients was significantly different from the control subjects. The relative abundances of some butyrate-producing bacteria from the genera Blautia, Coprococcus, and Roseburia were significantly higher in the feces of controls than PD patients

Gut

Hasegawa et al. [14]

2015

Japan

52

36

Abundances of Clostridium coccoides and Bacteroides fragilis decreased, while that of Lactobacillus increased in PD patients than controls

Gut

Unger et al. [9]

2016

Germany

34

34

PD patients possessed decreased abundance of bacterial phylum Bacteroidetes and the bacterial family Prevotellaceae, while increased abundance of Enterobacteriaceae in comparison with controls

Gut

Li et al. [15]

2017

China

24

14

Relative abundances of Blautia, Faecalibacterium and Ruminococcus significantly decreased, and those of Escherichia-Shigella, Streptococcus, Proteus, and Enterococcus significantly increased in PD subjects compared with controls

Gut

Hopfner et al. [16]

2017

Germany

29

29

There was significant difference in beta diversity indices between PD patients and controls, while not for alpha diversity indices. The abundances of Lactobacillaceae, Barnesiellaceae and Enterococcacea were found to be higher in patients than in controls

Gut

Bedarf et al. [17]

2017

Germany

31

28

Significant difference was observed for the gut microbiota composition between PD patients and controls at all taxonomic levels. PD patients have increased abundances of Verrucomicrobiaceae (Akkermansia muciniphila) and unclassified Firmicutes, while decreased abundances of Prevotellaceae (Prevotella copri) and Erysipelotrichaceae (Eubacterium biforme)

Gut

Hill-Burns et al. [18]

2017

USA

197

130

Significantly differed abundances of Bifidobacteriaceae, Christensenellaceae, [Tissierellaceae], Lachnospiraceae, Lactobacillaceae, Pasteurellaceae and Verrucomicrobiaceae families between PD patients and controls were observed

Gut

Petrov et al. [19]

2017

Russia

89

66

Reduced gut microbiota diversity in PD patients was observed. Decreased abundances of Dorea, Bacteroides, Prevotella, Faecalibacterium, Bacteroides massiliensis, Stoquefichus massiliensis, Bacteroides coprocola, Blautia glucerasea, Dorea longicatena, Bacteroides dorei, Bacteroides plebeus, Prevotella copri, Coprococcus eutactus, and Ruminococcus callidus, and increased abundances of Christensenella, Catabacter, Lactobacillus, Oscillospira, Bifidobacterium, Christensenella minuta, Catabacter hongkongensis, Lactobacillus mucosae, Ruminococcus bromii, and Papillibacter cinnamivorans, in PD patients in comparison with controls

Gut

Qian et al. [20]

2018

China

45

45

The richness and diversity of gut microbiota in PD patients were significantly higher compared with healthy group. Several enriched genera were identified in the feces of PD patients, which include Clostridium IV, Aquabacterium, Holdemania, Sphingomonas, Clostridium XVIII, Butyricicoccus and Anaerotruncus. The genera Escherichia/Shigella were negatively associated with disease duration

Gut

Lin et al. [21]

2018

China

75

45

Significantly increased abundances of four bacterial families and decreased abundances of seventeen bacterial families in PD patients in comparison with controls were observed

Gut

Heintz-Buschart et al. [22]

2018

Germany

76

78

Relative abundances of Akkermansia sp. and Prevotella sp. were significantly higher in gut microbiota of PD in comparison with healthy controls

Gut

Tetz et al. [23]

2018

USA

31

28

Different microbiota richness and diversity between PD and control groups were observed. A depletion of Prevotellaceae and Lachnospiraceae and decreased abundances of Lactobacillaceae and Streptococcaceae in the PD group compared with the controls were observed

Mouth

Pereira et al. [12]

2017

Finland

72

76

Different beta diversity of oral microbiota was found between PD patients and controls. Abundances of Prevotella, Prevotellaceae, Veillonella, Solobacterium, Veillonellaceae, Lactobacillaceae, and Coriobacteriaceae increased, while those of Capnocytophaga, Rothia, Kingella, Leptotrichia, Actinomyces, and Leptotrichiaceae decreased, in oral microbiota of PD patients compared with controls

Nose

Pereira et al. [12]

2017

Finland

69

67

No alpha or beta differences between nasal microbiota of control and PD patients were found

Nose

Heintz-Buschart et al. [22]

2018

Germany

76

78

The nasal microbiota displayed higher variation over the different individuals and no significant differences were found between PD patients and controls