Table 2 Examples of symbiotic interactions between different microorganisms for exogenous supply of vitamins

Mutualism and commensalism

Porphyridium purpureum

Halomonas sp.

Carbon source and algal extracts

Vitamin B₁₂

10 ng/l

–

[16]

Thalassiosira pseudonana

Ruegeria pomeroyi DSS-3

Dihydroxypropanesulfonate-3-dehydrogenase (DHPS; 3.3 mM) as carbon source

Vitamin B₁₂

–

DNA Synthesis by enzyme methionine synthase

[56]

Lobomonas rostrata

Mesorhizobium loti MAF

Algal photosynthate

Vitamin B₁₂

60 ng/l

Inorganic carbon assimilation by enzyme methylmalonyl COA mutase

[80]

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii CC23

Mesorhizobium loti (heterotrophic bacteria)

No exchange of photosynthate

Vitamin B₁₂

100 ng/l

–

[41]

Eutreptiella sp.

Ectobiotic bacteria (Marinobacter) and endobiotic bacteria

Bacteria uses host cells to reproduce

Vitamin B₁₂ and growth promoting factors

1 mg/l

–

[82]

Auxenochlorella protothecoides

Escherichia coli

Algal photosynthate

Vitamin B₁, 4-amino-5-hydroxymethyl-2-methylpyrimidine (HMP) and degradation products

20 ng/l

Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex used for carbohydrate metabolism and amino acid synthesis

[27]

Ostreococcus lucimarinus CCE9901

Pseudoalteromonas sp. TW7

Algal photosynthate

Vitamin B₁ and modify vitamin analogs

77.7 ng/l

–

[63]

Coccomyxa sp.

Peltigera aphthosa

Host tissue

Biotin

7.2 m µg per milligram

Cofactor in carbon dioxide metabolism in various carboxylases enzymes

[76,77,78]

Parasitism

Chlorella vulgaris

Exophiala sp. (fungus)

Host

Perform algicidal activity

–

–

[89]

Emiliania huxleyi

Phaeobacter gallaeciensis

Mutual/host

Roseobacticides A and B

Roseobacticides A and B, tropodithietic acid (TDA), thiotropocin (safeguarded the algal cells) and phenylacetic acid (enhanced algal growth)

[85]

Prorocentrum minimum

Dinoroseobacter shibae DFL-12

Mutual/host

Vitamin B₁₂ and roseobacticides

–

–

[79]