Table 3 L-carnitine productivities reported in the literature for different batch and continuous systems with growing and resting cells. See text for further details.

E. coli O44K74

0.34 g·L^-1·h^-1

32

Anaerobic

56

Proteus mirabilis

0.72 g L^-1 g^-1

40

poly(vinyl alcohol) cryogels

59

E. coli LMG194 pBADcaiC

1,7 g h^-1 g^-1

42

Overexpression of CaiC

26

E. coli BW25113 ΔaceA

2.88 g h^-1 g^-1

24

Suppression of glyoxylate shunt

26

E. coli BW25113 ΔaceK

3.17 g h^-1 g^-1

22

Suppression of glyoxylate shunt

26

Resting Cells

Strain

Productivity

Molar yield (%)

Comment

Ref.

E. coli pT7-5KE32

4.3 g·L^-1·h^-1

53.2

Anaerobiosis

61

E. coli pT7-5KE32

11.3 g·L^-1·h^-1

70.1

Aerobiosis

61

Proteus sp.

6.1 g·L^-1·h^-

50

Aerobiosis

79

Agrobacterium sp. 525a

1,2 g·L^-1·h^-1

38

D-Carnitine

781

E. coli O44K74

0.55 g·L^-1·h^-1

44

D-carnitine

14

E. coli pT7-5KE32

0.90 g·L^-1·h^-1

40

D-carnitine

62

E. coli O44K74

2.6 g·L^-1·h^-1

65

Salt Stress

71

E. coli pT7-5KE32

3.2 g·L^-1·h^-1

80

Salt Stress

71

E. coli O44K74

3.6 g·L^-1·h^-1

89

Polyethylenimine Permeabilized Cells

76

E. coli pT7-5KE32

3.8 g·L^-1·h^-1

94

Polyethylenimine Permeabilized Cells

76

Proteus sp.

1.6 g·L^-1·g^-1·h^-1

68

Triton X-100 Permeabilized Cells

79

Continuous Processes

Strain

Productivity

Molar yield (%)

Comment

Ref.

Escherichia coli O44K74

0.3 g·L^-1·h^-1

---

Immobilized in polyacrylamide

83

Escherichia coli O44K74

1.8 g·L^-1·h^-1

26

Immobilized in glass beads or polyurethane foam

56

E. coli O44K74

6.2–12 g·L^-1·h^-1

40

Cell recycle

55,63

E. coli pT7-5KE32

1.2 g·L^-1·h^-1

24

Cell recycle (plasmid loss after 4–6 days)

63

E. coli pT7-5KE32

0.71 g·L^-1·h^-1

10

Immobilized in kappa-carrageenan

63

Proteus sp.

40.5 g·L^-1·h^-1

35–50%

Cell-recycle

58

Proteobacteria

5.4 g·L^-1·h^-1

90–95

Cell-recycle

84